Monthly Archives: Mayıs 2026

What is an Inductive Sensor? Working Principle, Types, and Industrial Applications.

In the world of industrial automation, inductive sensors are one of the most commonly used components for contactless detection of the position of moving parts or the presence of metallic objects. As the name suggests, inductive sensors use the principle of induction to detect only metallic objects; they do not recognize non-metallic objects such as plastic, wood, glass, or ceramics. Thanks to these characteristics, they have become one of the most preferred sensor types in food, pharmaceutical, and electronics production lines, machine safety systems, and robotic applications.

Because inductive sensor devices operate contactless, they prevent wear and tear and failure problems seen in mechanical switches. Since they do not have moving mechanical parts, they have a very long lifespan and can complete millions of switching cycles without problems. Furthermore, their high resistance to dust, moisture, and vibration allows them to operate reliably even in harsh industrial environments.

Working Principle of Inductive Sensors

The operating principle of inductive sensors is based on the electromagnetic interaction that occurs around a coil that generates a magnetic field. The coil, wound around a ferrite core at the tip of the sensor, continuously produces a high-frequency magnetic field via an internal oscillator. The eddy currents generated by this magnetic field are absorbed by a metal object approaching the sensor; as the object approaches, the oscillator circuit loses energy and the oscillation amplitude decreases.

The sensing circuit within the sensor continuously monitors this decrease in oscillator amplitude. When the amplitude falls below a certain threshold, the output stage is triggered, and the sensor sends a logic signal to the connected PLC or relay. When the object moves away, the oscillator starts oscillating again at full amplitude, and the sensor output returns to normal. Thanks to this mode of operation, these sensors can detect metal objects with high repeatability without any mechanical contact. The typical switching frequency ranges from 1 to 5 kHz; in special high-speed models, this value can reach 10 kHz.

Inductive Sensor Structure

An inductive sensor consists of four main components: a coil wound on a ferrite core, an oscillator circuit, a sensing circuit, and an output stage. The ferrite core directs the magnetic field to the front surface of the sensor; the coil determines the direction of the magnetic flux. The oscillator circuit is designed as an LC resonance circuit and produces continuous oscillations at a specific frequency on the coil. The sensing circuit converts the change in oscillation amplitude into a digital signal.

The main structural components of inductive sensor devices are briefly as follows:

• Ferrite core sensing coil
• LC or crystalline oscillator circuit
• Schmitt trigger sensing circuit
• NPN, PNP, or analog output stage
• Stainless steel, brass, or plastic housing
• Standard cylindrical housing diameter from M5 to M30
• Status indicator LED
• IP67 / IP69K level sealing

Applications of Inductive Sensors

Inductive sensors are used in many industries such as automotive, food, pharmaceutical, electronics, packaging, machinery manufacturing, paper, plastics, and metal processing. In automotive production lines, they are used to detect workpiece presence by robot arms, mold opening and closing detection, and part positioning in welding stations. In food and beverage production, the presence of cans, aluminum caps, and metal bottles is detected using these sensors.

Areas where this technology is heavily used:

• Part presence and mold detection in automotive lines
• Can and metal cap detection in food production
• Table position and tool change points in CNC machines
• Floor and limit switches in elevator and crane systems
• Fork position monitoring in forklifts
• Metal object counting in conveyor lines
• Speed ​​monitoring as an air conditioning fan rotation sensor

Advantages of Inductive Sensors

The greatest advantage of these devices is their contactless operation. Wear, physical force limitations, and mechanical failure types seen in mechanical switches are not a concern with these devices. Because they have no moving parts, they can complete tens of millions of switching cycles without problems. Thanks to their high switching speed, they operate reliably even on fast production lines; some models can switch five thousand times per second.

Their resistance to dust, moisture, oil, chemical liquids, and vibration allows them to operate safely in harsh industrial environments. Stainless steel housing models have an IP69K protection rating and are resistant even to high-pressure washing processes. Their wide operating temperature range (-25 °C to +85 °C, and in special models -40 °C to +120 °C) makes them suitable for outdoor and oven-side applications. Low power consumption, simple wiring (three-wire or four-wire), and wide voltage tolerance (10-30 V DC) increase application flexibility.

Selecting Inductive Sensors

To correctly select an inductive sensor, the metal type and dimensions of the target object must first be determined. The nominal sensing distance given for steel is approximately 40% lower for aluminum, 50% lower for brass, and 30% lower for copper. Those who disregard this difference may encounter false detections. Factor 1 models are recommended for mixed metal applications. The size of the target object should be at least the same as the diameter of the sensor’s sensing surface; the sensing distance decreases for smaller objects.

Mounting conditions are important factors affecting the selection. If you are mounting the sensor by embedding it in a metal housing, you should use a shielded type. Environmental conditions, IP protection class, temperature range, and chemical resistance are the main determining factors. PTFE-coated models are recommended for applications near welding areas; special dual-coil models can be considered next to large transformers with magnetic fields. The output type (NPN, PNP, NO, NC, IO-Link) and communication protocol must be compatible with the existing PLC input type. SIL or PL certified models should be preferred for safety applications.

Frequently Asked Questions

What materials can inductive sensors not detect?

These devices only detect metallic objects. They cannot be used for plastic, wood, glass, ceramics, paper, liquids, or granular materials. Capacitive sensors should be preferred for non-metallic objects, and ultrasonic sensors for transparent objects.

What affects detection distance?

The type of target metal (steel, aluminum, brass, copper), the size and shape of the object, the diameter of the sensor housing, and whether it is shielded or unshielded directly affect the detection distance. Factor 1 models minimize these differences.

Should the sensor output be NPN or PNP?

The choice depends on the PLC input card’s configuration. NPN models are preferred for PLC cards with sourcing inputs, while PNP models are preferred for cards with sinking inputs. Using mixed types in the same project requires additional resistive connections.

What does the IO-Link feature provide?

The IO-Link interface allows the sensor to transmit not only digital asset information but also temperature, signal amplitude, switching count, and diagnostic data. This enables remote parameter modification and predictive maintenance.

How is the sensor protected near the source area?

PTFE-coated weld field models should be used to protect against weld field spatter and magnetic interference, and the sensor housing should be placed in a magnetic shielding enclosure if possible.

What is a Photocell Sensor? Working Principle, Types and Industrial Applications.

Photocell sensors are components found at every point in industrial automation that detect the presence of moving or stationary objects via a beam of light. The name photocell is derived from the term ‘photoelectric cell,’ meaning a cell sensitive to light. These devices generate information about the presence of an object based on whether a receiver detects or does not detect a beam of light sent by a transmitter. Because they can detect many objects regardless of color, material, and surface characteristics, they are considered one of the most widely used sensor types in industry.

Photocell sensor devices perform object counting, positioning, presence control, height measurement, and speed control tasks in food, packaging, automotive, logistics, paper, plastics, and electronics production lines. Unlike mechanical switches, they operate without contact; this reduces the likelihood of wear or failure, and they can complete millions of switching cycles.

Photoelectric Sensor Working Principle

These devices are based on the principle that light emitted by an internal LED in the visible or infrared region is detected by a receiver photodiode or phototransistor. The LED source blinks periodically as a wave; this modulation is important to prevent the sensor from being affected by ambient light. The receiver stage only detects light at this modulation frequency; stable operation is ensured by filtering out external light sources such as sunlight, fluorescent lamps, or welding machine sparks.

When an object enters the sensor, the way the light beam reaches the receiver changes. If it is a reciprocal type, the object cuts off the light, leaving the receiver in darkness, and the output is triggered. In a reflector type, the transmitter and receiver are in the same housing, and the light reflects off the opposite reflector panel; the reflection is interrupted when an object enters. In a diffuse type, the transmitter and receiver are in the same housing, and the light reflects off the surface of the object and returns. The output stage operates according to the logic of one of these three different structures; the detection signal is generated in NPN, PNP, or analog format.

Photocell Sensor Structure

The device’s internal structure consists of a light emitter, light receiver, modulation circuit, sensing circuit, and output stage. The emitter side features an LED; this LED can be infrared, red, green, blue, or laser. The laser source is particularly suitable for applications requiring highly precise positioning; its small spot diameter allows for the detection of even small objects. The receiver side contains a photodiode or phototransistor, which converts the incoming light into an electrical signal.

The main structural components of the device are briefly as follows:

• LED or laser light emitter
• Photodiode or phototransistor receiver
• Modulation circuit (for external light immunity)
• Sensing circuit and sensitivity adjustment
• NPN, PNP, analog, or IO-Link output stage
• Plastic or metal housing, M12 – M30 cylindrical
• Status indicator LED and teach button
• IP67 or IP69K level waterproofing

Applications of Photocell Sensors

Photocell sensor devices are used in a wide variety of industries such as automotive, packaging, food, beverage, pharmaceutical, electronics, paper, logistics, warehouse automation, and machine manufacturing. They are used for product presence and counting on conveyor lines, filling control and label presence detection in packaging machines, and contrast detection in printing machines. In elevator and door systems, they manage safe closing by detecting the presence of objects between door panels.

Applications where this technology is heavily utilized include:

• Object counting and positioning on conveyor lines
• Presence control in packaging and filling machines
• Package size and shelf occupancy monitoring in logistics warehouses
• Safety detection in elevator and automatic door systems
• Transparent surface detection (polarized) in glass production lines
• Blister packaging control in the pharmaceutical industry
• Vehicle detection and counting in parking systems

Advantages of Photocell Sensors

The most significant advantage of these devices is their ability to detect a wide variety of objects. It’s possible to identify objects of different structures, such as metal, plastic, wood, glass, paper, liquids, granules, or even people, with a single element. They also offer great flexibility in terms of range; face-type models operate up to 60 meters, reflector-type models up to 20 meters, and diffuse-type models up to 1-2 meters. This feature is particularly important in applications covering large areas.

Because they operate without contact, they experience no mechanical wear; they function reliably and have a long lifespan. Thanks to their high switching speeds, they can respond reliably even on fast production lines; some models can switch tens of thousands of times per second. Thanks to their modulation circuit, they are resistant to external light sources; sunlight, ambient lighting, and even welding sparks do not affect the sensor. Models with advanced diagnostic functions continuously monitor the receiver light level and generate contamination warnings, facilitating maintenance planning.

Photocell Sensor Selection

To select the correct photocell sensor, it is essential to first know the material type, color, size, and surface characteristics of the object to be detected. For transparent or semi-transparent objects, opposite-type or polarized reflector type models are recommended; these types can detect even small light changes. For black or matte objects, opposite-type or background-blocking models should be preferred, as the detection range of diffuse models will be reduced. If very small objects need to be detected, laser or fiber optic models should be considered.

The detection distance requirement is determined by the mounting geometry. If it is possible for the transmitter and receiver to be in separate housings, the opposite-type is the most reliable choice. If mounting on one side, reflector or diffuse models should be considered. In terms of environmental conditions, IP protection class, temperature range, and vibration resistance should be considered. Models with high-power light sources are recommended for dusty, foggy, or rainy environments. Output type (NPN, PNP, NO, NC, IO-Link), housing type, and cable connection (M8, M12 connector or wired) are factors to consider during selection.

What is a Distance Sensor? Working Principle, Types, and Industrial Applications.

In industrial automation, it is necessary to know not only the presence of an object but also its distance from that object. The components that meet this requirement are called distance sensors. Distance sensors continuously measure the distance of an object in millimeters, centimeters, or meters and transmit this information to a PLC or controller in analog or digital form. A wide variety of distance sensor types exist, based on different technologies such as laser, ultrasonic, infrared, magnetostrictive, linear potentiometric, and LIDAR, each distinguished by its specialized application area.

Distance sensors are used in areas such as material height measurement, level monitoring, part size verification, robot positioning, collision avoidance, package size measurement, and thickness inspection. They have become a standard component in many sectors, including automotive, logistics, furniture, paper, textiles, food, pharmaceuticals, and electronics.

How a Distance Sensor Works

The operating principles of these devices vary depending on the technology used. Laser models utilize time-of-flight or triangulation methods. The time-of-flight method calculates the distance by measuring the time it takes for a laser beam to travel to and from an object; since the speed of light is known, the distance can be deduced from this time. In the triangulation method, the laser beam is directed onto the object, and the reflected light is focused on a specific point on a CMOS or PSD receiver; as the distance changes, this point moves, and the sensor deduces the distance from the point’s position.

Ultrasonic devices emit high-frequency sound waves (around 40 kHz) that are imperceptible to the human ear; they calculate the distance by measuring the return time of the wave reflected from the object. Infrared devices are relatively inexpensive models that operate on the triangulation principle. Magnetostrictive sensors combine magnetic field changes with acoustic waves to measure position; this type is preferred in hydraulic cylinders and machine axes. LIDAR technology creates a two- or three-dimensional distance map by scanning a laser beam over a wide area.

Distance Sensor Structure

Although the internal structure of the device varies depending on the technology used, the basic elements—transmitter, receiver, processor, output stage, and housing—are common. Laser models use a laser diode on the transmitter side and a CMOS image sensor or PSD on the receiver side. Ultrasonic models use a piezoelectric crystal as both transmitter and receiver. Infrared models use both an IR LED and a PSD. The processor interprets the signal from the receiver and calculates the distance value.

The main components of the device are briefly as follows:

• Transmitter: Laser diode, IR LED, piezo crystal, or radar antennas
• Receiver: CMOS image sensor, PSD, or piezo crystal
• Temperature compensation circuit (especially for ultrasonics)
• DSP/ARM-based processing unit
• Analog (4-20 mA, 0-10 V) or digital output stage
• IO-Link, Profinet, EtherCAT, EtherNet/IP communication
• Aluminum, stainless steel, or plastic housing
• IP65, IP67, or IP69K level waterproofing

Applications of Distance Sensors

Distance sensors operate in a wide range of applications depending on the required distance measurement. In automotive manufacturing, they are used to monitor the distance of robot tips to the workpiece, continuously measure mold positions, and verify part dimensions during body assembly. In logistics and warehouse automation, they measure package dimensions, monitor shelf occupancy, and perform collision avoidance tasks in forklifts and AGVs.

Applications where this technology is heavily utilized include:

• Roll diameter measurement in textile and paper machinery
• Dual-sensor micron measurement in sheet thickness inspection
• Position tracking in elevator and crane systems
• Container stacking measurement in ports
• Ultrasonic/radar measurement of tank and silo level
• Vehicle detection and height measurement in parking systems
• High-accuracy positioning in medical devices

Advantages of Distance Sensors

The greatest advantage offered by distance sensors is their ability to continuously transmit distance information, going beyond simple object detection. This allows for object size verification, detection of missing or excess parts, and millimeter-precise positioning on a production line. Because they operate without contact, they are resistant to wear and mechanical failure; they function reliably and for a long time. Laser models provide micron-level accuracy, while ultrasonic models can reliably measure even in adverse visibility conditions.

Thanks to high response times, continuous measurements are performed even in moving processes; in some models, the sampling rate can reach thousands of measurements per second. Modern models include communication interfaces such as IO-Link, Profinet, EtherCAT, and EtherNet/IP; this allows not only distance but also temperature, receiver signal amplitude, and diagnostic information to be transmitted to the PLC. Improved optical filters provide resistance to adverse conditions such as external lighting and reflection.

Selecting a Distance Sensor

To select the correct distance sensor, the measurement range must first be determined. For very short distances (1 mm-50 mm), triangulation-based laser or infrared models are recommended. For medium distances (5 cm-3 m), diffuse-type laser or ultrasonic models are preferred. For long distances (3 m-100 m), time-of-flight-based laser or radar models are suitable. Accuracy requirements should be evaluated in conjunction with the measurement range; high-resolution triangulation models should be selected for micron-level accuracy.

The surface characteristics of the target object are an important factor influencing selection. Ultrasonic models are recommended for transparent surfaces; high-power laser models for black and matte surfaces; and polarized models for shiny metallic surfaces. Environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, dust, and vibration levels should be considered. Radar models are preferable in dusty and vaporous environments. The output type (analog, digital, IO-Link, Profinet, EtherCAT) is determined according to the existing automation system. The sensor’s response time, measurement repetition rate, housing type, and protection class are also factors to consider during selection.

Elektraverse Distance Sensor Supply

Elektraverse is an AI-powered B2B digital marketplace developed specifically for the electrical and electronics industry. It matches buyers and suppliers based on technical compatibility for your distance sensor purchases. Unlike traditional price-focused marketplaces, its approach prioritizes engineering requirements such as measurement range, accuracy, resolution, light type (laser, infrared, ultrasonic, radar), protection class, output type, and communication protocol. When you enter your project’s technical requirements into the request form, the AI ​​algorithm automatically directs your request to the most suitable models among the registered suppliers.

This direct communication model, eliminating intermediaries, shortens the technical question-and-answer process and significantly reduces the time it takes to collect quotes. Elektraverse also provides a vast technical knowledge base on laser distance measurement, ultrasonic level sensors, LIDAR technology, and machine safety through blog posts, webinar recordings, and YouTube content. The blog post titled “LIDAR Sensors” on the site also contains additional information for distance measurement applications. You can directly submit your technical questions before sensor selection using the Elektraverse Assistant chat application on the site.

Frequently Asked Questions

Are distance and proximity sensors the same thing?

No. A proximity sensor only digitally reports whether an object is within a predefined distance. A rangefinder, on the other hand, continuously transmits the distance to the object as an analog or digital value; this allows for real-time tracking of distance changes.

What is the difference between laser and ultrasonic treatment?

Laser-type sensors provide very high accuracy (micron level) and fast measurements over a wide range; however, problems may arise with transparent glass or very bright reflective surfaces. Ultrasonic sensors, on the other hand, detect transparent and colored surfaces without problems, but their accuracy is at the millimeter level and can be affected by air currents.

In which environments should the radar type be preferred?

Radar-type devices are preferred in environments with adverse visibility conditions such as dust, steam, fog, and smoke. Radar models are standard applications in tank level measurement at cement, mining, and waste incineration plants.

What does blind spot mean?

The closest area in front of the sensor where it cannot detect anything is called the blind spot. Ultrasonic models typically have a blind spot of 4-30 cm; laser triangulation models have a blind spot starting from a few millimeters. In practice, the target object needs to be placed outside this blind spot.

What data does the IO-Link interface transmit with distance sensors?

The IO-Link interface transmits distance data from these devices, as well as receiver signal amplitude, temperature, dust/contamination warning, switching count, and calibration information. This is a useful feature for predictive maintenance.

What is an Ultrasonic Sensor? Working Principle, Types, and Industrial Applications.

In industrial automation, some applications for measuring object presence or distance encounter conditions that classic photocells and capacitive sensors cannot handle. Transparent glass and plastic objects, bright and reflective surfaces, dust, fog, and even dark environments are among these challenging conditions. This is where ultrasonic sensor devices come into play. They emit high-frequency sound waves, imperceptible to the human ear, and measure the reflection to produce information about distance or object presence. Their ability to function regardless of color, surface characteristics, and lighting conditions has given them a unique position in the automation world.

Ultrasonic sensor devices generally operate at frequencies between 30 kHz and 500 kHz; lower-frequency models provide a wide coverage area, while higher-frequency models provide more precise measurements at a narrower angle. Models used in air environments are used for tasks such as storage tank level measurement, package size inspection, machine safety, and robot collision avoidance. Special models designed for liquid environments excel in flow rate measurement and level monitoring applications.

Ultrasonic Sensor Working Principle

Ultrasonic sensor devices operate on the principle of knowing the speed of sound waves in air and measuring the time it takes for the wave to travel and return. Sound waves travel at approximately 343 m/s in air; this value varies with temperature. The sensor sends a sound wave by vibrating a piezoelectric crystal at a high frequency. This wave hits an object in front of it, reflects back, and is detected by the same crystal. The distance is calculated by measuring the time between transmission and detection.

A typical device first produces a short vibration signal during measurement; then the crystal switches to receiver mode and waits for the returning echo. During this time, external vibrations and electromagnetic interference are filtered out; only reflections with the expected frequency and characteristics are evaluated. Modern models include a temperature compensation circuit; this ensures that changes in ambient temperature do not affect measurement accuracy. Some models can analyze multiple reflections to provide the closest object, the average distance, or the furthest reflection.

Ultrasonic Sensor Structure

The device’s internal structure consists of a piezoelectric transducer, driver circuit, receiver amplifier, temperature sensor, processor, and output stage. The piezoelectric transducer is used both to transmit sound waves and to detect the reflected wave. The driver circuit applies a high-frequency signal to the transducer, putting it into ringing mode. The receiver amplifier amplifies the returning weak signal, bringing it to a level that the processor can utilize.

The main structural components of the device are briefly as follows:

• Piezoelectric transducer (transmitter and receiver)
• High-frequency driver circuit
• Low-noise receiver amplifier
• Internal temperature compensation sensor
• DSP/ARM-based processing unit
• NPN, PNP, analog (4-20 mA, 0-10 V) output stage
• IO-Link, Modbus, Profinet communication interface
• Stainless steel or PVDF coated housing
• IP65 / IP67 / IP69K level sealing

Applications of Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensor devices are used in many applications where classic photocell and capacitive sensors are insufficient. Transparent glass bottles, plastic containers, and shiny metallic surfaces are reliably detected by these sensors; this feature is a major advantage in beverage production, pharmaceutical packaging, and glass manufacturing. Object presence, package size, and height measurement on moving conveyor lines are also performed using these sensors.

Applications where this technology is heavily utilized include:

• Liquid, granule, and powder level measurement in tanks and silos
• Presence of transparent glass bottles in beverage production
• Roll diameter measurement in paper and cardboard machines
• Collision avoidance in robotic and AGV vehicles
• Vehicle detection in parking and traffic counting systems
• Human detection in automatic door systems
• Clamp-on types for water flow measurement
• Presence detection in washable hygienic food environments

Advantages of Ultrasonic Sensors

The greatest advantage of these devices is their ability to detect objects regardless of material type. Almost all solid and liquid surfaces can be detected by these devices, regardless of whether they are transparent, glossy, matte, colored, dark, shiny, or absorbent. This feature is a decisive advantage in dealing with transparent glass and plastic objects, which classic photocell sensors cannot handle. They can operate reliably even under adverse visibility conditions such as dust, fog, steam, and darkness.

Thanks to their wide operating temperature ranges, stainless steel housing models, and high protection classes, they operate reliably in harsh industrial environments. Their ability to transmit distance measurements directly in analog or digital form enables complex applications such as object size verification on production lines. Thanks to temperature compensation circuits, they are minimally affected by changes in ambient temperature. Modern models transmit not only distance but also signal amplitude, temperature, and diagnostic information to the PLC via IO-Link communication.

Ultrasonic Sensor Selection

To select the correct ultrasonic sensor, the measurement range must first be determined. Compact models are recommended for close-range applications (5 cm-50 cm), standard cylindrical models for medium range (50 cm-3 m), and high-power models for long range (3 m-10 m). The blind spot distance (the area in front of the sensor that it cannot detect) varies from model to model, and measurements outside this area should be targeted in the application. Resolution requirements are evaluated together with the measurement repeatability rate.

The surface characteristics of the target object are important. Flat and wide surfaces efficiently reflect sound waves back to the sensor; reflection is weaker on inclined or rough surfaces. High-power models are recommended for soft and absorbent surfaces. Environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, dust, airflow, and vibration should be considered. Temperature-compensated models are recommended for models that will operate outdoors. ATEX-certified models should be selected for explosive environments. PVDF-coated stainless steel models are preferred for corrosive chemical liquids; IP69K rated stainless steel models are preferred for washable, hygienic food areas.

Ultrasonic Sensor Supply via Elektraverse

Elektraverse is an AI-powered B2B digital marketplace developed specifically for the electrical and electronics industry, matching buyers and suppliers based on technical compatibility for your ultrasonic sensor purchases. Unlike traditional price-focused marketplaces, its approach prioritizes engineering requirements such as measurement range, blind spot distance, accuracy, housing material, protection class, operating temperature, ATEX certification, output type, and communication protocol. When you enter your project’s technical requirements into the request form, the AI ​​algorithm automatically directs your request to the most suitable models among the registered suppliers.

Thanks to its direct communication structure that eliminates intermediaries, the technical question-and-answer process is shortened, and the quotation collection time is significantly reduced. Elektraverse also creates a vast technical knowledge base on ultrasonic applications, tank level measurement, IO-Link technology, and hygienic production sensors through blog posts, webinar recordings, and YouTube content. You can directly submit your technical questions before sensor selection using the Elektraverse Assistant chat application within the site.

Frequently Asked Questions

What objects can ultrasonic sensors detect?

These devices detect all surfaces that reflect sound waves, regardless of material type. This includes metal, plastic, wood, glass, liquids, powders, granules, paper, and human tissue. Color, brightness, or transparency do not affect the measurement.

What is the difference between ultrasonic and laser rangefinders?

Laser rangefinders provide very high accuracy (micron level); however, problems may occur with transparent or very glossy surfaces. Ultrasonic types detect transparent and colored surfaces without problems, but their accuracy remains at the millimeter level and can be affected by air currents.

What does sensor blind spot mean?

The blind spot is the closest area in front of the sensor where it cannot detect anything. Models typically have a blind spot ranging from 4 to 30 cm; in practice, the target object must be placed outside this area.

Are these sensors affected by air temperature?

The speed at which sound waves propagate through air varies with temperature. Modern models have an integrated temperature compensation circuit that eliminates this deviation. The accuracy of certified models is kept stable between -20 °C and +60 °C.

What data does IO-Link provide?

The IO-Link interface transmits distance data from these devices, as well as receiver signal amplitude, ambient temperature, switching count, and diagnostic alerts. This is a useful feature for predictive maintenance.